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Canada: A People's History confederation Home - confederation
http://history.cbc.ca/histicons/
Included in the banner is a clickable timeline.
Confederation for Kids
http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/2/index-e.html
  • Prelude: The Shaping of Canada
  • Provinces: Reasons are given for each province and territory entering Confederation
  • People who played an important role in the making of Canada.
  • Gallery - Photographs of the people who were important to the Confederation of Canada and the changes of the map of Canada.

  • Canadian Confederation: Provinces and Territories
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2100-e.html
    Links to facts and the timeline of each province and territory joining confederation.
  • Canadian Confederation: The People
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2300-e.html
    Biographies of the Fathers of Confederation and others responsible for Confederation of Canada. Includes brief biographies of: Sir John A. MacDonald, Sir George-Etienne Cartier, Sir Charles Tupper, Sir Alexander Galt.
  • Canadian Confederation: Maps 1667-1999
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2101-e.html
    A series of maps that takes you on the historical journey of the creation of the political boundaries of Canada.
  • Canadian Confederation: Key Terms
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2950-e.html
    Learning about these elements is essential to understanding the evolution of the process that led to the creation of Canada and the evolution of the country since that time.
  • Canadian Confederation: Documents
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2600-e.html
    A sample of some of the documents listed.
  • The Quebec Conference , 1864 The Seventy-Two Resolutions
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-245-e.html
    The 72 resolutions became the basis of the Confederation Debates. The resolutions were officially adopted only by the Province of Canada but became the basis of the British North America Act, which created Canada.
  • George Brown describes the Charlottetown Conference , 1864
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-271-e.html
  • New Brunswick Fathers of Confederation
    http://www.gnb.ca/legis/publications/tradition/legtrad9-e.asp

  • British North America Act, 1867
    http://canada.justice.gc.ca/en/ps/const/loireg/p1t1-1.html
  • John A. Macdonald on the Federal System
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-272-e.html
  • Canadian Constitutional Documents
    http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/
    Starts with the Constitution Act 1867 (formally the British North America Act), and concludes with the Constitution Act 1999.
  • Constitution Acts 1867 - 1982
    http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/index.html


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    External Factors heading to Confederation
  • Fear of Annexation by the United States
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2005-e.html

  • Confederate Operations in Canada
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2065-e.html

  • Some Little Know Stories
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2070-e.html

  • Raids and Skirmishes
    http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/2/18/h18-2010-e.html

  • Documents from the Front: The American Civil War and the Fenian Raids
    http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/english/exhibits/fenians/index.html     Territorial Evolution of Canada
    Maps showing changes to Canada's boundaries since Confederation in 1867. From the Atlas of Canada.
    Entry of Provinces into Canadian Confederation
    Dates on which each of the provinces and territories joined Canadian Confederation.
    Fathers of Confederation - Canada
    Canadian Fathers of Confederation are the representatives of the British North America colonies who attended the three major conferences on Canadian Confederation.
    The Online Canadian Encyclopedia



    Confederation Info From "Canada Revisited" Textbook
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    Chapter 9 The Drive to Nationhood (1854-1868) Overview Use this Overview to predict the events of this chapter. 1854-1866 Reciprocity Treaty with the United States--the British colonies in North America were prosperous. Reciprocity ended in 1866. If the colonies would join together and trade amongst themselves, economic prosperity would perhaps continue. 1850s Railways were built to improve transportation and communication. If the colonies joined together they could all share in the costs of railway building. 1857-1864 A political deadlock occurred in the Legislative Assembly of Canada, making it impossible to pass important laws. 1860s Britain was changing her attitude about her British North American Colonies. Britain told the governors of each colony to encourage the colonies to join together. 1864 In spite of their differences, some of the politicians in the Canadas decided to join together and form a federal union for the good of the country. 1864 Pressure was exerted for a Maritime Union. 1864 Charlottetown Conference (September) Page 179 1864 Quebec Conference (October). The 72 Resolutions were drafted. 1866 The Fenians, a group of Irish Catholics in the United States, wanted to end British rule over Ireland. They led several armed raids across the border into British North American colonies. 1866 London Conference drafted the British North America Act. 1867 On July 1 Nova Scotia New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario joined together to form the Dominion of Canada. Page 180 Chapter 9 Focus Chapter 8 detailed specific events and people who worked to give more people a voice in government. Chapter 9 is about some of the many problems Canada faced on the way to nationhood and what attempts were made to solve them. This chapter will emphasize co-operation and decision-making during the period from 1854 to 1868. Overview/Prediction Chart Examine the Overview on the previous pages. In pairs or small groups, use the Overview and what you already know about Canada's formation as a nation to predict answers to the questions in the Prediction Chart. Put your predictions in the "My Predictions" column. Once you have finished the chapter, complete the "What I Found Out" column to help you review and summarize. Your teacher will provide you with a full-sized working copy of the Prediction Chart. SAMPLE Prediction Chart --What Do You Think? Note: Column headings have been changed to the following: Questions My predictions (fill out now) What I Found Out (fill out at end of chapter) 1. What might be the major events? 2. Who might be some of the important people or groups? 3. Who might hold power? Discussion 1. Lord Durham in his statement on page 175 says: "I found two nations warring in the bosom of a single state." As a group develop definitions for the terms nation, nationhood, and state. You may want to refer to the definition of nation on page 7. a) Based on the definitions you developed discuss whether you agree with Lord Durham or not. b) Canada is made up of "two founding peoples--the British and the French." Speculate what problems may occur when two such groups attempt to bring about nationhood. BY THE QUEEN! A PROCLAMATION For Uniting the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, into one Dominion, under the name of CANADA VICTORIA R. On Monday, July 1, 1867, market squares and open places in front of public buildings were packed with people eager to hear Queen Victoria's proclamation that the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick had been united into one Dominion under the name of Canada. Page 181 The Province of Canada: 1854-1867 The union of the two Canadas, which had taken place in 1841 (the Act of Union, see page 164), was not successful. Not one political party could seem to get the support of a majority of the Legislative Assembly and implement any changes. The Canadiens (French) believed that the English Canadians were trying to make them lose their cultural identity (their language, religion, and culture). The English Canadians accused the Canadiens of trying to run everything their way. Refer to the chart below when reading this page. "Rep by Pop" One of the disagreements between French- and English-speaking members of the Legislative Assembly was representation by population or "rep by pop." Rep by pop--The number of elected members of a Legislative Assembly (the representatives) is based on the number of voters (based on the population). "Rep by pop" is an abbreviation for representation by population. In rep by pop the number of elected members of the Legislative Assembly is based on the number of voters. The reformers in Canada West, led by George Brown and his Clear Grit party, were pushing for rep by pop. This would mean that since its population was larger, Canada West would have more representatives in the Legislative Assembly than Canada East would have. The representatives from Canada East, led by George-Etienne Cartier, were against rep by pop, since it would result in less power for them in the Legislative Assembly. It seemed unfair since, in the past when Canada East had a larger population than Canada West, the two had equal representation in the Legislative Assembly. Political Deadlock * Co-operation There was disagreement in the Legislative Assembly at this time. Since there was an equal number of representatives from Canada West and Canada East, the two groups often voted against one another and major legislation could not be passed. A deadlock resulted. Fortunately, George Brown, the leader of the Clear Grits, and John A. Macdonald, the leader of the Tories, were able to save the situation. * * The Tories are today called the Conservatives. Even though the two men had been bitter enemies for years, they put aside their personal feelings and acted for the good of the country. George Brown stood up in the Legislative Assembly and said that he would work with Macdonald and George-Etienne Cartier, the leader of the Bleus. Together they could form a federal union of the Province of Canada (Canada West and Canada East), the Atlantic colonies, and the North-West Territories. Federal union--a political union in which the members have certain powers over their own affairs, and certain powers are turned over to a central government The offer was accepted and the groups united to work for a federal union. A government where the political parties work together is called a coalition. Political Party Chart Canada West Key: Political party and leader Beliefs Clear Grit Party: George Brown Reformers (wanted to change and improve things) Liberal conservative Party (Tories): John A. Macdonald believed in British system of government (against change in government) Canada East Le Parti Rouge: A. A. Dorion (favoured rights of Canadiens) Le Parti Bleus (Bleu): George-Etienne Cartier favoured co-operation between Canadiens and English-speaking Canadians Page 182 Reasons for Federal Union (Confederation) * Co-operation Why do you think the political parties in the Canadas decided to work towards a federal union (Confederation) at this time? Many changes had taken place during the 1850s and early 1860s that had led to this decision. There were basically five reasons why the politicians of the 1860s were in favour of Confederation: 1. When there is a political deadlock, no laws can get passed. That was when the Great Coalition was formed. (You have already read about the problems in the government of the United Province of Canada [Canada East and Canada West].) 2. A railway was needed to link the colonies. 3. Trade with the United States was ending. 4. There was a threat of an American expansion into British North America. 5. Britain was changing her attitude about the British North American Colonies. 1. Political Deadlock and the Great Coalition The Great Coalition was formed in June of 1864. The parties joined together in a new political party that they called the Confederation Party. The purpose of the Confederation Party was to create a federal union in the Province of Canada (Canada East and Canada West) and seek a larger union with the other British North American colonies: the colony of Newfoundland, the colony of Nova Scotia, the colony of Prince Edward Island, and the colony of New Brunswick. Eventually, they hoped that the colonies of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and the North-West Territories would become part of the union. Confederation Province of Canada New Brunswick Nova Scotia In 1867, the British North American colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada (Canada East and Canada West) agreed to join together to form a nation that would be a federal union. This was Confederation. The members in this union would retain some power over their own affairs and would turn some powers over to a more powerful central government. This central government, located in Ottawa, is Canada's federal government. Page 183 2. A Railway Was Needed The Province of Canada was separated from the Atlantic colonies by the mountains in Gaspe and northern Maine, and by the ice that closed the St. Lawrence River each winter. The railways made the distance between the colonies seem much shorter. Before the railway, mail delivery took a week. After the railway was built it took a day. The first important railway line ran from Montreal to Portland in the United States. This gave merchants in Montreal a means of getting their goods out of Canada East even in the winter. They no longer had to worry about the St. Lawrence River freezing over. Picture: The railway enabled mail and goods to go to the colonies in a shorter amount of time. Focus On: The Railway-Building Era In British North America there was an obsession with building railways in the 1850s. By 1860 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Canada West, and Canada East all had their own railways. Travel by water was very slow and the rivers froze in the winter, making it impossible to get goods to market. The railways made it possible to get farm crops and manufactured goods to market quickly and cheaply. This provided a tremendous interest in Canadian manufacturing. Unfortunately, it did not take long before the railways were in financial difficulty. By 1860 the Grand Trunk Railway, which ran from Sarnia in the west to Riviere-du-Loup in the east, was virtually bankrupt. In 1861, it declared a deficit of 13 million dollars. The Great Western Railway, which ran from the Niagara River to Windsor, also ended up in financial trouble. The government could not let the railways go bankrupt because of their importance to the economy. As a result, the railway companies did not have to repay most of their loans. This was very expensive for the taxpayers of Canada. After 1860, railway building in the British North American colonies came to a virtual halt. By this time a new dream was beginning. This was the dream of a new nation united by a railway, built from sea to sea. If the colonies joined together and they all shared in the costs, an intercolonial railway and a railway to the Pacific Coast would be possible. Intercolonial railway--a railway that joins the various colonies Picture: This is the Great Western station at London, Ontario, in 1858. The large building in the background is Tecumseh House. It was the largest hotel in British North America at this time. Page 184 3. Trade with the United States Because the British North American colonies were part of the British Empire, they received favoured status when they traded with Britain. This meant that owners of products such as timber and wheat either paid low taxes (tariffs) or no taxes when they entered Britain. Tariff--a tax paid on goods brought into a country or colony People importing products from places that were not part of Britain's empire were forced to pay high tariffs and did not receive tariff protection. In 1846 Britain entered a period of free trade. Free trade--trade between countries where taxes or tariffs are not involved This meant that Britain bought goods from whichever country sold them at the lowest price. The colonies of British North America lost their special status with Britain and as a result lost most of their markets. Economic hard times resulted. The economic situation improved in 1854 when a trade agreement, called the Reciprocity Treaty, was signed between British North America and the United States. Reciprocity meant that there would be free trade in natural products between the British North American colonies and the United States. It meant that the British North American colonies could sell their products to the United States without paying tariffs whenever products entered or left an area. Soon new American markets joined old British markets. In 1865 the United States decided to end the Reciprocity Treaty. Soon an idea began to spread among the colonies of British North America: if the colonies joined together and traded among themselves, removing the tariffs between their various colonies, economic prosperity would continue. * * Each of the colonies of British North America had tariffs on goods entering them. 4. Threat of American Expansion Northward During the 1860s the Northern and Southern American states had been at war with one another. Southern raiders had used Canadian territory as a base from which to attack the Northern states. At the end of the Civil War, in 1865, the Northern states accused the British colonies of helping Southerners who were fleeing from Northern troops. The British government, to some extent, had sided with the South. There was talk of invading the British North American colonies. In 1866 the Fenians made several armed raids across the border into the British North American colonies. The Fenians were a group of Irish Catholics in the United States who wanted to end British rule over Ireland. Since they could not get at Britain directly, they decided to attack her North American colonies. Fenian border raids were another example of a threat from the American states. Picture: This painting depicts a battle between Fenians and British soldiers that took place in 1866 at Ridgeway near Niagara. The Fenians wore green and carried a green flag with a gold harp. The British wore red. Page 185 After the American Civil War the Americans entered into a period of western expansion. They had obtained land from Spain, Mexico, France, and Great Britain (Oregon) as their people moved westward. Many people in the colonies were concerned about the American threat to western lands in British North America. Would the Americans try to buy land in British North America from Britain? Would they invade as they had done in the past (during the American Revolution, during the War of 1812, and recently during the Fenian border raids)? The Americans in the colony of Red River wanted it to join the United States. There was already a great deal of trade going on between Red River and the American community of St. Paul. There was also a danger that the most western colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia could be taken over by the United States. Many American miners, who had flooded in during the gold rush in the late 1850s and early 1860s, had settled in the area. Also, there was much trade going on between the two British colonies and the American port of San Francisco. Good farmland in Canada West was getting more difficult to obtain. Many people in Canada West looked to the lands to the west (present-day Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta) as a possible area for settlement; but the Americans too were thinking about moving into these western lands. If the colonies of British North America were to join together and annex these western lands, they would get the land before the Americans did. Many people in the British North American colonies were concerned about the American threat. They thought that if they united they would be better able to defend themselves. 5. Changing British Attitudes The British were also concerned about the American threat. It was very expensive to defend the British North American colonies. They thought that if the colonies united they would be able to defend themselves, and the British army would not have to help them. The British governors in each of the colonies were told to encourage the colonies to unite (Confederation). Britain's decision to encourage union was very important because the British North American colonists were still intensely loyal to Britain. If Britain wanted Confederation, then many people would be inclined to favour it for that reason alone. Britain's change in attitude towards her British North American colonies meant Britain was in favour of these colonies taking on more responsibility for governing themselves. This factor played an important part in Canada's struggle for self-government. As fragments, we shall be lost; but let us be united and we shall be as a rock. Thomas D'Arcy McGee Canada East If we desire to obtain England's support for our defence, we must help ourselves. When we are united, the enemy will know that if he attacks any province he will have to deal with the combined forces of the Empire. George-Etienne Cartier Canada East Page 186
    The Atlantic Colonies: 1854-1864 * Decision-making By the early 1860s the Atlantic colonies of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick were facing some serious problems. For one thing, there was little industrial development in the region. As a result, there was little population growth. Many people were forced to leave to look for work elsewhere. Trade was another problem. The United States was planning by 1866 to end the special trade treaty (the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854), whereby many goods passed across the border without duty. Also, the British policy of free trade with all nations, which Britain had put in place in 1846, had meant less demand in Britain for goods from the Atlantic colonies. The dwindling American and British markets meant that it was very important to develop new markets within the British North American colonies. The Atlantic colonies were also concerned about the threat of American expansion and knew they would be stronger if they banded together. For these reasons, the Atlantic colonies began to look at the idea of a maritime union. A conference was scheduled for September of 1864 in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, to discuss the possible union of the Atlantic colonies. Picture: Saint John, New Brunswick, prior to Confederation. Picture: Halifax was the oldest city in the Atlantic colonies. Picture: Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, was where the Charlottetown Conference was held in 1864. Page 187
    An Exercise in Decision-Making The colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island are meeting to discuss maritime union. The Province of Canada asked to join the discussion. It is August 1864. You are one of the delegates at this conference. Since there are representatives from four colonies (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the Province of Canada-- -made up of Canada East and Canada West) at this meeting, you are to divide your class into four groups. * * Newfoundland did not attend this conference. Each group should represent one of the colonies of British North America and should move to one part of the classroom. As a group, you are to perform a number of tasks. You will be asked later on in this activity to meet as a large group and carry out a role play activity. Period One Task 1 (one period with homework)--Do research in the library to find out what your colony was like in 1864. Prepare a large chart containing the following information to display in your colony's work area: the name of your colony, your capital city, your location on a map of British North America, the names (and perhaps pictures) of your colony's political leaders, your population, your main economic activities, and your colony's special needs. Pick a recorder and a leader for your group. The leader should assume the name of the actual leader of the colony. Your teacher has role play cards for the members of your group to use. Page 188
    Period Two Task 2 (10 minutes of Period 2)--The members of your group have mixed feelings about this new idea of political union. Some of you are in favour of union and some are against it. In character and as a group, brainstorm your feelings about having your colony join with the other colonies of British North America. The note-taker should write the ideas from brainstorming on chart paper. What problems is your colony facing? Is it to your advantage to have your colony join with the other colonies? What will your colony gain? What will your colony lose? What type of government do you want in order to protect your colony's special needs? Task 3 (20 minutes of Period 2)--In chart form make a list of all the factors your colony should consider when deciding whether you should join Confederation. Remember, you must consider the wishes of everyone in your colony when you make up your list of factors. (Just make up a list--do not discuss or evaluate any of the factors. Before you start, make sure everyone in your group understands the issues you are working on.) Task 4 (10 minutes of Period 2)--Referring to the chart your group did in Task 3, prioritize up to six factors that your group feels are the most important for your colony. List them on the Charlottetown Conference 1864 Chart, and on the large chart your teacher will provide for you. * * Masters for Charlottetown Conference 1864 Chart are located in the Teacher's Resource Package. Period Three Task 5 (25 minutes of Period 3)--As a group review the factors your colony should consider if it is to become part of Confederation. Examine the consequences of each factor (both short- and long-term) by deciding how these factors will affect you personally (as per your role card) and how they will affect the other people in your colony. Fill in the consequences section of the Charlottetown Conference 1864 Chart. It is not necessary that you fill in four consequences for each factor, but try to think of as many outcomes as you can for each factor. Task 6 (5 minutes of Period 3)--Thinking About Thinking: take approximately five minutes of quiet time to reflect upon the procedure your colony/group went through while doing tasks three to five. Task 7 (5 minutes of Period 3)--Considering other people's points of view is an important critical thinking exercise. Think about why other people see the issue of political union (Confederation) differently than you do. If someone sees an issue differently than you do, does this mean that their way is the wrong way? Task 8 (5 minutes of Period 3)--Discuss: Why did some of the people in your colony think their way was the best way? Period Four Task 9 (20 minutes of Period 4)--In character, make a decision about the issue: Should your colony join Confederation? Consider all the factors and the consequence of each factor that your group listed on the Charlottetown Conference 1864 Chart. As a group, reach a consensus as to what your colony should do. Record it in the space, "Your Colony's Decision." Task 10 (10 minutes of Period 4)--Critical thinkers sometimes change their decisions in light of new evidence. There is nothing wrong with this. As a group, critically think about and then discuss: Does your decision really solve the issue? Do this by referring to the factors and consequences that were noted on the Charlottetown Conference 1864 Chart, and by brainstorming the following questions: How does the decision you reached solve the issue? What other solutions can you think of? What are their advantages and disadvantages? Do you wish to change your solution? Task 11 (10 minutes of Period 4)--In your next social studies class, your colony's leader will meet with the leaders of the other colonies to debate the issue of Confederation. If your colony decided to join the other colonies, help your leader prepare for this debate by making sure the special concerns of your colony are not lost in the proceedings. If your colony decided not to join the other colonies, help your leader prepare arguments against joining Confederation. Period Five Task 12 (40 minutes of Period 5)--It is September 1, 1864. Your colonial leader is sitting in one of the chairs around the "Confederation table" at Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Have a debate to decide whether your colony should join the other colonies of British North America, forming the new country of Canada. In the next social studies class you will find out what actually happened at the Charlottetown Conference of 1864. Page 189
    Charlottetown Conference: 1864 * Co-operation * Decision-making The colonies of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick decided to meet in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island on September 1, 1864 to discuss the idea of a union of the Atlantic colonies. Newfoundland decided not to attend the meeting. The Province of Canada (Canada East and Canada West) decided to take advantage of this opportunity to convince the Atlantic colonies (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) to join with them in a larger union. They were told that they could attend the conference. John A. Macdonald, George Brown, George-Etienne Cartier, Alexander Gait, and Thomas D'Arcy McGee went in order to state why they thought there should be a British North American union. The Province of Canada promised to build a railway connecting Canada and the Atlantic colonies. George Brown (Canada West) promised "that our farmers and manufacturers and mechanics shall carry their wares into every village of the Maritime Provinces and that they shall with equal freedom bring their fish, and their coal, and their ... produce to our three millions of inhabitants." By the end of the Charlottetown Conference the decision had been made to work toward a Confederation of all the British North American colonies. It was decided that a second meeting should be held in a month's time at Quebec. Picture: Fathers of Confederation, by Rex Woods. Delegates met in Charlottetown in 1864 to discuss the formation of a united Canada. Picture: People celebrated at a grand dance held on the final night of the Charlottetown Conference. Page 190 Quebec Conference: 1864 * Co-operation * Decision-making Delegates from the British North American colonies met again in October, but this time they met in Quebec City. There were representatives from the Province of Canada, as well as all of the Atlantic colonies, including Newfoundland, which had not attended the Charlottetown Conference. The Quebec Conference lasted for over two weeks. The result of the Quebec Conference was a list called the Seventy-Two Resolutions, which were to form the basis upon which the new nation of Canada would be built. Resolutions--a list of guidelines or rules that are to be followed as a basis for ruling a group of people The highlights of the Seventy-Two Resolutions appear below. Seventy-Two Resolutions At the Quebec Conference, Seventy-Two Resolutions were drawn up. Some of the major ideas follow: A strong central government (federal government) would handle common affairs, notably economic development and defence. Provinces would have limited powers (thus they would be weaker than the federal government) to handle local affairs, and social and cultural issues. A federal Parliament would be composed of a lower house called the House of Commons and an upper house, known as the Senate. Members of the House of Commons would be elected according to the notion of representation by population. Members of the Senate would be appointed. Canada East, Canada West, and Atlantic Canada would each be considered a region and would be given about the same number of members. Each region had 24 members. This would provide some protection for the small Atlantic colonies, which would each have very few elected members in the House of Commons. The federal government was to legislate for "peace, order and good government." Picture: The Quebec Conference was held in the temporary Parliament Building at Montmorency-Laval in Quebec. Picture: This photograph, taken on October 27, 1864, the last day of the Quebec Conference, shows delegates from the five colonies of British North America: the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland.
    Page 191 The Confederation Debates In the Province of Canada * Decision-making Picture: The Confederation Debates included intense discussions of serious disagreements. The job of the delegates who were at the Quebec Conference was to go home and convince the anti-Confederates (those against Confederation or Union) to change their minds. In order for the Seventy-Two Resolutions to be passed, they had to be approved by the colonial assemblies in the Province of Canada. In the Province of Canada the debate continued for six weeks, but in the end the Great Coalition (see page 182) had an overwhelming majority on its side. The vote in the assembly was 91 to 33 in favour of Confederation. Here is an imaginary conversation that might have taken place among some of the members of the Legislative Assembly after the vote: I voted for Confederation because if we are united we will be able to defend ourselves better against the Americans. Britain does not seem very interested in helping us, so we must help ourselves. That is perfectly true, my friend. However, what is more important, trade will improve within the British North American colonies. We will send our manufactured and our farm goods to the Atlantic colonies and will receive their goods in return. As a Canadien and a representative of my people, I am more interested in protecting the Canadien way of life. I think that a separate provincial government for Canada East will do that. I'm in favour of guaranteeing La Survivance, not Confederation. La Survivance--cultural survival, especially of the French language and culture, and of the Roman Catholic religion I am also a Canadien, but I do not share your feelings about Confederation. I think our way of life will be threatened, because the central government will be too strong and will be run by English-speaking people. We Canadiens will have to stand up for ourselves at every turn in the future. I feel as you do about Confederation, even though I am not a Canadien. What good are the Atlantic colonies to the Province of Canada? We don't need to unite with them in order to trade with them. You nay-sayers are forgetting about the possibility that Confederation will allow us to build a trans-continental railway. Then we will be able to unite with the colonies and territories to the west, and become a nation from sea to sea. Look at all the good farmland we'll be able to take over for the younger generation. Page 192 In the Atlantic Colonies * Decision-making There was strong opposition in the Atlantic colonies to the Seventy-Two Resolutions and thus to Confederation. Many people thought that they were doing fine on their own and could see no reason to join Canada and take on its problems. The people of the Atlantic colonies were in the fishing, lumbering, and shipbuilding industries. They felt that they had little in common with the farmers of the Province of Canada. Briefly, here is what happened before 1867, in the Atlantic colonies: The people of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia reversed their initial opposition to Confederation and voted for it. The people of Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland rejected the idea of Confederation. The following includes more details about the story of the debates in each of the Atlantic colonies. New Brunswick In 1865 Premier Tilley's pro-Confederation government (those in favour of Confederation or Union) fought an election on the issue of Confederation and lost. His opponents stressed that New Brunswick would lose control over its own affairs in Confederation and the people believed them. In 1866 the lieutenant-governor, appointed by Great Britain, was instructed to encourage Confederation in the colony. He pressured the anti-Confederation government into resigning and appointed a pro-Confederation government. He then called another election. Tilley was re-elected and the new assembly voted for Confederation. This seems like a surprising turnaround, but circumstances changed between the two elections. First, the fear of an American invasion had been reawakened by Fenian raids across the border. People felt it would be much easier to have a strong army if New Brunswick united with Canada. Second, Great Britain announced that it supported the idea of union. People who were worried about breaking ties with Britain were reassured that some links would remain. Third, people had time to think about the possible economic benefits of union. They became convinced that union would mean an enlarged, protected market for New Brunswick goods. Also, people thought union would mean more money for railway construction, which in turn would mean more jobs for the labour force in the colony. Railways were also needed to open up forested land for settlement. Another reason for the pro-Confederation victory was that Tilley was able to wage a strong campaign with money from sources such as shipping, timber, and railway interests, as well as from the government in the Province of Canada. Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley (1818-1896) Samuel Leonard Tilley was born to Loyalist parents who had come north following the American Revolution. He had a profitable medical supply business before entering politics. Tilley was one of the Fathers of Confederation. He represented New Brunswick at both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences. As premier he led the fight to convince the people of New Brunswick to join confederation. Following Confederation Tilley joined John A. Macdonald's Conservative government first as minister of customs, then as minister of finance. He was lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick from 1873 to 1878. He returned to the Macdonald government as finance minister in 1878. In 1885 he became lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. Cartoon: All in the Family. This 1865 cartoon from Le Perroquet shows Upper and Lower Canada arranging to marry Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. They plan to adopt little Prince Edward Island, but the U.S. is not invited. Page 193 Nova Scotia People in Nova Scotia had been quite interested in a union of the Maritime colonies. Nova Scotia was largely responsible for the Charlottetown Conference of 1864. There was a strong emotional pull for a maritime union in Nova Scotia. This was because New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island had been part of one colony (Nova Scotia) during the 1700s. Photograph: By 1867 Halifax was already an important port and military centre. Confederation was tied to railway building in the minds of the pro-Confederation people in Nova Scotia. They wanted to see Halifax linked by railway to the Province of Canada (Canada East and Canada West). The access to Canadian markets would greatly help industrial development in Nova Scotia. The reaction of communities in Nova Scotia to the idea of Confederation often depended on their nearness to the proposed railway. If they were not close, then they were not particularly interested. Many anti-Confederates led by Joseph Howe were concerned about how much influence a small province like Nova Scotia would have in Confederation. They were also worried about higher taxes to support railway development. Premier Charles Tupper, who was pro-Confederation, watched the 1865 election loss of the pro-Confederation candidates in New Brunswick and decided not to call an election until Joseph Howe lost some of his support. Nova Scotia could not very well join without New Brunswick anyway, since New Brunswick was between Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada. Finally, in 1866 pro-Confederation Premier Tilley of New Brunswick was swept back into office. A new pro-Confederation lieutenant-governor was appointed in Nova Scotia. Sir Fenwick Williams was well liked because he was a native of the colony and had been a hero in the British navy. With his help, Premier Tupper was able to win the support of the Legislative Assembly for Confederation. Charles Tupper (1821-1915) Tupper was a third-generation Nova Scotian, descended from a family of early North American settlers. He became a doctor and was the first president of the Canadian Medical Association. In 1864 Tupper became the premier of Nova Scotia and attended the Charlottetown and Quebec conferences during that same year. He is one of the Fathers of Confederation and is credited with his province's entry into Confederation. After Confederation, Tupper held many Cabinet posts in the federal government, including that of minister of railways and canals from 1870 to 1884, while the Canadian Pacific Railway was being built. He replaced Sir Mackenzie Bowell as prime minister in May of 1896, but resigned July 8 after he and his Conservatives were defeated by Wilfrid Laurier's Liberals. He led the Opposition for another four years before retiring from politics. Joseph Howe The popular Joseph Howe led the fight against Confederation in Nova Scotia. His 12 "Botheration Letters" were printed in the Halifax Morning Chronicle from January to March, 1865. This is an example of what he said: Comparing Confederation to a piece of cloth, it is a weak and poorly planned piece of material. Is it a good idea to put new wine [Nova Scotia] in an old bottle [Province of Canada] or to attach new cloth to an old item of clothing? Is union strong when a wise man, doing a steady business, is tricked into joining a gambler? Was Samson stronger when combined with Delilah, who tied him with ropes and cut off his hair? Page 194 Prince Edward Island In Prince Edward Island there was widespread opposition to the idea of Confederation. People were concerned that the island's five representatives in the House of Commons would have little power or influence. Also, the Quebec Conference had refused to guarantee a l200,000 loan to buy out the absentee landlords who owned most of the island. Islanders saw no advantage in the proposed customs union, because the island's government operating revenues came almost entirely from duties on trade with other colonies. Newfoundland The people of Newfoundland were really not very interested in Confederation. They felt that they had little in common with the people of the united Province of Canada. When they heard about the anti-Confederation events in the other Atlantic colonies, they lost the little interest they had. The London Conference * Co-operation * Decision-making Sixteen delegates from the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick sailed to London in 1866 to present the Seventy-Two Resolutions to British officials. During the meetings in London, the delegates from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were able to make some changes that were to their benefit. New Brunswick got assurances that the intercolonial railway would be built. Provincial government subsidies were increased. Subsidy--loan of money that the government contributes or sets aside for a given year's budget. It is usually for a specific project. On February 12, 1867, the bill containing the Seventy-Two Resolutions (the British North America Act) was introduced in the British House of Lords. It passed through both houses quickly, and on May 22, 1867, Queen Victoria proclaimed that the Dominion of Canada would become a nation on July 1, 1867. John A. Macdonald was to be the first prime minister. Picture: London Conference on Confederation, by J. D. Kelly. The London Conference lasted from December 1866 to February 1867. Page 195 Photograph: Sir John A. Macdonald 1815-1891 (1st Prime Minister) Dates as Prime Minister 1867-1873, 1878-1891 Party--Conservative Personal Summary John Alexander Macdonald was born in Glasgow, Scotland. He came to Canada as a young boy. He later said that he did not have a boyhood because he left school at the age of 14 and went to work in a law office at 15. By the time he was 19 he had started his own law practice. He served in the militia during the Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada. In 1843 Macdonald married Isabella Clark. Their first son died in 1848. Their second son, Hugh John, served briefly as premier of Manitoba in 1900. Isabella was ill most of her married life and died in 1857. In 1867 Macdonald married Susan Agnes Bernard, who was 20 years younger than John A. She was very interested in Macdonald's political career and would often sit in the gallery of the House of Commons in order to watch him in action. When she accompanied him on a trip to British Columbia by train in 1886, she rode part of the way on the cowcatcher--a metal framework at the front of the train--in order to better enjoy the scenery. Macdonald's second marriage, like his first, was tinged with sadness. The only child of the marriage was born severely handicapped. However, John A. believed in making the best of things. Lady Macdonald once wrote: Oftentimes he comes in with a very moody brow, tired and oppressed, his voice weak, his step slow; and ten minutes after he is making very clever jokes and laughing like any schoolboy with his hands in his pockets and his head thrown back ... I tell him his good heart and amiable temper are the great secrets of his success. Macdonald was knighted by Queen Victoria for his work and thereafter was called Sir John A. Macdonald. Political Summary John A. Macdonald helped to create the Liberal-Conservative Party in Canada West in 1854. In 1856 he became joint premier of the Province of Canada. In 1867 he became the first prime minister of the Dominion of Canada. He presided over the union and expansion of Canada. The first provinces joined together in 1867 (Confederation). In 1870 the North-West Territories were brought into Confederation and the province of Manitoba came into being. In 1871, the province of British Columbia entered Confederation, and in 1873, the province of Prince Edward Island joined. In 1880 the British government transferred the Arctic Islands to Canada. Sir John A. was responsible for the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which resulted in the West becoming populated and then joined to the rest of Canada. He once said that he would be quite willing to not have Canadians settle the far West for the next half century, but he was afraid to do so because of the threat of an American takeover. Large numbers of Canadians were needed to fill the West before the Americans did. The Pacific Scandal, which caused Macdonald and his Conservative Party to resign from office in 1873, was related to the building of the railway. In 1872 the Conservatives had received a large campaign contribution from Sir Hugh Allan, the man who had been awarded the contract to build the railway. Macdonald and his Conservatives won the election with a reduced minority, but the opposition accused them of accepting bribes from Allan and his company. The Conservatives resigned in 1873 and lost the election of 1874. However, they were returned to office with a majority in the election of 1878. Wilfrid Laurier, a Liberal opponent of Macdonald and a later prime minister, summed up Macdonald's accomplishments after his death in 1891: It may be said, without any exaggeration whatever, that the life of Sir John Macdonald, from the day he entered Parliament, is the history of Canada, for he was connected and associated with all the events, all the facts which brought Canada from the position it then occupied--the position of two small provinces, having nothing in common but their common allegiance, united by a bond of paper and united by nothing else--to the ... state of development which Canada has reached. Page 196 The British North America Act, 1867 Introduction The British North America Act * (BNA Act) created the Dominion of Canada in 1867, stated the powers of the provincial and federal governments, outlined the way in which the government would be structured, and guaranteed protection for minority groups. * The BNA Act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1867 because of the changes made to the Constitution in 1982. Constitution Act, 1867 Aim: to create a federal union (Confederation) of the colonies of British North America, associated with Great Britain. Dominion of Canada, 1867 The proclamation of the Dominion of Canada was announced at Windsor Castle in Great Britain in May 1867. The Dominion of Canada was to consist of the provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Quebec. Federalism The most important question that the writers of the Constitution Act, 1867 had to decide was whether there should be both national and provincial levels of government, or just a national level. John A. Macdonald and others had not wanted provincial governments. However, Quebec felt that if it lost its provincial government, it would also lose its identity: its French language, its culture and traditions, as well as its civil laws. Many people in the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were anxious to have their own provincial governments. The result was a system of federalism. This meant that the Dominion of Canada would have two levels of government: national or federal (or central) and provincial. The federal government would handle matters affecting everyone. Each provincial government would handle matters affecting only the people it governs within its boundaries. Canada's System of Federalism It would be a system with a central government and provincial governments. The central government would have more power than the provincial governments. The provincial governments would have little power and few rights. * * In 1982 some changes were made to the Canadian Constitution. For example, the provinces gained more power. Central or Federal Government Page 197 Forms of Central Government It was decided that the central government of the Dominion of Canada would have three parts. (1) The head of the government of Canada is the monarch and is represented by a governor general. Parliament--the law-making body of the government--is composed of (2) the House of Commons and (3) the Senate. Representatives from each province are elected to the House of Commons. They are called Members of Parliament. The number of Members of Parliament from each province depends on the size of the population in that province (representation by population). This means that the smaller provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick have far fewer Members of Parliament to represent their interests. The Senate is meant to represent regional interests. Ontario was given 24 representatives, Quebec 24, and Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 24 together. Senators are appointed. Canada's System of Federal Government (as outlined in the BNA Act 1867) British Government (Crown) appoints the Governor General (Elite) LEGISLATIVE BRANCH ("Parliament"-- law-making body) makes laws and votes on taxes and other sources of revenue Senate (appointed by Governor General) (Elite) members appointed for life called senators House of commons "the people's representatives" called Members of Parliament (elected by voters) The political party with the most elected members in the House of Commons is asked to form the government. EXECUTIVE BRANCH (policy-making body) approves the proposed legislation before it goes to the House of commons, where it is then debated advises the governor general on policy and appointments The Prime Minister appoints the Cabinet (Elite) The Cabinet advises the Governor General Cabinet Ministers the prime minister is the leader of the political party holding the majority of seats in the house JUDICIAL BRANCH (Court system) interprets the laws and carries out justice through the courts The political party with the second largest representation in the House of Commons becomes the Opposition. The Speaker Page 198 A Strong Central Government The central or national government was to be very strong. This was partly because the American Civil War, in which the states fought against each other, was still fresh in the minds of the Fathers of Confederation. They were afraid that if the provinces were too powerful, they might fight in the same way that the American states had. * Power Here is how the central government became strong: 1. The central government was given authority over matters of general concern. These powers were vague. They included everything that was not specifically covered by the provinces. Here is an example: "The federal government shall make laws for the peace, order, and good government of Canada in regard to all subjects not specifically given to the provinces ..." * * This is known as the POGG clause--a government for Peace, Order, and Good Government. The United States created a government to provide for life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 2. It was given the power to veto or reject any provincial laws within one year of their passage. Division of Powers in the Constitution Act, 1867 Just as you cannot play hockey without rules, so you cannot govern a country without rules. The rules that govern a country are called a constitution. There are basically two types of constitutions: written and unwritten. The United States has a written constitution. If questions arise, one refers to the constitution for the answers. Britain has an unwritten constitution, where the courts make decisions based on customs and traditions and previous court rulings. Canada's constitutions (the 1867 Constitution and the 1982 Constitution) are written in some areas and unwritten in other areas. Actually, the 1982 Constitution moved Canada closer to a written constitution and farther from custom and tradition. Powers Specified in the 1867 Constitution Among the 29 items that were specifically stated as powers and thus the responsibility of the federal (central) government were: trade and commerce raising money by taxation postal service armed forces and defence fisheries money Native peoples and lands reserved for them divorce criminal law penitentiaries While matters of national interest were to be legislated by the federal government, matters of a particular or local interest were the responsibility of the four provincial governments. These matters were: direct taxation within the province management and sale of public lands belonging to the province provincial prisons hospitals and asylums local works and projects education administration of justice and provincial courts issuing licences to shops, saloons, taverns, and other businesses As you can see from the provincial list of responsibilities, the provinces were given authority over social and cultural areas such as education, and local matters such as provincial courts. * * As the years went by these powers often overlapped and blurred, so that the division of powers is no longer easy to explain. It is also a current issue. Shared Powers in the Constitution Act, 1867 In addition to the powers specified in the Constitution Act, 1867, Canada also has some powers that are shared by the national (federal) government and the provincial governments. All other powers in the Constitution Act, 1867 are covered by the POGG clause. This clause gave the federal government all the powers necessary to carry out peace, order, and good government. It made the federal government very powerful.
    Page 199 Issues Raised by Confederation The Fathers of Confederation believed that the division of powers between the federal and provincial governments would not be a cause of tension. However, provincial rights almost immediately became an issue in the Maritimes. You will read about this later in the chapter. Provincial rights--the powers maintained by the provincial governments, usually involving cultural, social, and local issues The issue of biculturalism was not settled as a result of Confederation. Biculturalism refers to having two cultures. In Canada it was the French and English cultures that lived together in one nation. French Canadian and Roman Catholic institutions that had been established in Quebec were protected by the Constitution Act, 1867. Both English and French were declared the official languages of the federal Parliament, the federal courts, and the government and courts of Quebec. This was an example of what we now call bilingualism. French civil laws were protected in Quebec. Whatever rights and privileges that separate schools in each province had at the time of Confederation were supposed to remain. However, the question of whether bilingualism was just to be protected in Quebec or was to be extended throughout Canada was not clear. This issue was to be raised in the North-West. You will read about this later on in the textbook. First People and Other Minorities The Constitution Act, 1867 only has one direct reference to the Aboriginal peoples: section 91(24) gives the Parliament of Canada exclusive authority over "Indians and lands reserved for the Indians." The First People, as Canada's original people, did not have any input in the Confederation negotiations or in policies affecting them. The Province of Canada had already worked out its Aboriginal policy; thus when the new Canadian government had to make decisions regarding the First People, they adopted the policy already in effect in the Province of Canada: Aboriginal lands were to be acquired by treaty; the people were to be settled on reserves; and a government department was to be created in Ottawa to manage how they were to live. Because they surrendered their traditional lands, the First People received reserves and services such as education and health care. Some First People believe that this was too high a price to pay. While the rights of the French Canadians were guaranteed in the Constitution Act, 1867, the rights of the other minorities in Canada were not guaranteed at this time. The aim of the new government of Canada in regard to minority peoples was to force the minorities to live by the will of the majority. This meant that there would be an attempt to assimilate the Aboriginal peoples into the dominant Canadian culture. They would have to give up their customs and traditions, their language, and their religion. They were to become like Canadians of English or French backgrounds. You will learn more about this in Chapters 10 and 11. For Your Notebook 1. Canada has a federal system of government. Explain how this works. 2. Which of these government responsibilities are provincial? Which are federal? (Hint: Check in the government pages of your telephone directory.) vehicle licensing making new coins hospitals Native land claims pensions highway maintenance international boundary disputes unemployment insurance 3. When was bilingualism introduced? Briefly explain why Canada is a bilingual country. 4. Who has the most power--the federal government or the provincial government? In what ways could you see this causing problems in Canada today? Exploring Further 1. The U.S. Civil War between the Northern and Southern states took place between 1861 and 1865. How do you think that the Canadian system of federalism, brought in by the Constitution Act, 1867, might prevent a war between the Canadian provinces? 2. Optional: The Constitution Act, 1867 gave the central or national government (the federal government) a great deal of power. If the Meech Lake Accord had passed in 1990, what effect would it have had on the powers of the federal government? 3. Optional: Monitor the media for a week. Record any constitutional issues.
    Page 200
    Confederation Celebrations On March 29, 1867, the British Parliament passed the British North America Act, now known as the Constitution Act, 1867. The Constitution Act, 1867 created the Dominion of Canada. The new dominion was to consist of the four provinces of Ontario (formerly Canada West), Quebec (formerly Canada East), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Provision was made for other provinces to join later. On Monday, July 1, 1867 a Toronto newspaper announced: "A united British North America takes its place among the nations of the world." There were fireworks, cheering crowds, fine speeches, parades, and gun salutes to celebrate the occasion. Photograph: This crowd of people has gathered in Kingston's Market Square on July 1, 1867, to hear the proclamation announcing Confederation. Photograph: One of Canada's early postage stamps shows a profile of Queen Victoria. In 1868 it cost 3 cents to send a letter within Canada, 6 cents in the United States, and 12.5 cents to Britain. Photograph: Viscount Monck was Governor of British North America from 1861 and Canada's first governor general. Photograph: The Confederation Medal was ordered by John A. Macdonald in 1867 to commemorate Confederation. Page 201 Photograph: At the time of Confederation, Canada's flag was the Union Jack of Great Britain. Photograph: The Three-Pence Beaver. Sir Sanford Fleming designed Canada's first postage stamp, issued in 1851. Fleming was one of the engineers who worked on the Canadian Pacific Railway. During his work on long-distance railways, he recognized the problems that occur when each city sets its own time. To make time consistent, Fleming invented Standard Time, which divides the world into 24 time zones. In 1884, Standard time was adopted by 25 countries. Photograph: John A. Macdonald worked hard to bring the first four provinces together into Confederation. He became the first prime minister of Canada. Photograph: The Parliamentary Library was photographed by Samuel McLaughlin about 1865. The library was the only part of the Parliament Buildings to survive the fire of 1916. Photograph: This photograph of Queen Victoria was taken during Canada's Confederation year, 1867. Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, died in 1861. She wore black to show her mourning for him until she died in 1901. Page 202 The Years After Confederation Federal/Provincial Conflict in Nova Scotia * Conflict Not everyone in the new Dominion of Canada felt like cheering on July 1, 1867. In Nova Scotia many people were having second thoughts about Confederation. The July first Halifax Morning Chronicle newspaper appeared edged in black like an obituary notice. It declared that "the free and intelligent Province of Nova Scotia" had "died last night at twelve o'clock." In Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, pro-Confederation politicians were burned in effigy, along with a dead rat. Effigy--an imitation, made of cloth, of a person who is disliked The anti-Confederation feeling in Nova Scotia became evident to the rest of Canada after the September elections of 1867. In the first federal election to be held in Nova Scotia, 18 anti-Confederation candidates won and only one pro-Confederation candidate won. In the Nova Scotia provincial election held on the same day, the anti-Confederates won 36 of the 38 seats. The anti-Confederates in Nova Scotia were led by Joseph Howe. Howe and his followers had gone to Britain in 1866 * to lobby against the union of Nova Scotia with the other provinces to form the Dominion of Canada. * Note this was the year before the passing of the Constitution Act, 1867 (Confederation). Lobby--represent a special interest to the government. A lobbyist tries to get lawmakers to introduce or vote for measures favourable to the lobbyist's special interest. The British legislators listened but did not agree. They were firmly convinced that Confederation was in the best interests of both the colonies of British North America and the British Empire as a whole. Separatist Movement Following Canada's first federal election, the Nova Scotian members of Parliament, led by Howe, presented a motion in the House of Commons in Ottawa. It stated that Nova Scotia should be released from Confederation. The motion was overwhelmingly rejected by the powerful Conservative majority. They wanted Nova Scotia to remain as a part of Canada. Back in Nova Scotia, public discontent toward Confederation was being expressed by massive petitions and discussions in the provincial Legislature. Howe and members of the Nova Scotian anti-Confederation group again went to London to ask the British government to allow Nova Scotia to withdraw from Confederation. They were told in no uncertain terms that they would not be released and that any complaints about the way in which Confederation was working should be taken up with the government of Canada. Compromise * Co-operation Some members of the Nova Scotian anti-Confederation group began to talk of joining the United States. However, Howe and most of the members of the Nova Scotian anti-Confederation group remained loyal to Britain. Howe returned to Nova Scotia from London having decided to compromise. Compromise--an agreement in which each side gives up some of its demands He wanted to "accept the situation, repair the mischief, and make the best of a bad business." The only path left was to stay in Confederation and to try to arrange a better agreement with the Canadian government. Prime Minister Macdonald was not particularly pleased about the separatist movement in Nova Scotia. To encourage them to stay in Confederation, he decided to offer better terms to the province. The yearly grants were increased by $20,000. Macdonald also asked Howe to become a member of the federal Cabinet. When Howe accepted the position as a federal Cabinet minister, he left the anti-Confederation movement in Nova Scotia without a leader. Leaderless, the movement lost steam. It faded and was no longer a threat to a united Canada. Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick People in these provinces seemed satisfied with Confederation, although the Confederation agreements had passed with a small majority among French members. English-speaking members from Canada East were overwhelmingly in favour of Confederation. No strong anti-Confederation movements like the one in Nova Scotia arose in the other provinces. Exploring Further 1. Find out more about Joseph Howe. Hold a debate between Howe and Sir John A. Macdonald on the subject of Nova Scotia's withdrawal from Confederation. 2. Do research to find out more about separatist movements in Canada between 1867 and the present. Page 203 Cultural Groups in Canada When studying the history of Canada, it is very important to remember that Canada is a varied mixture of many cultures. These cultures have added so much to our history. Germans The first record of the arrival of Germans to this country was to the colony of Quebec as soldiers in the French army. After their military service ended they chose to stay in New France. Hans Bernard is thought to have been the first German settler in New France, having purchased land near Quebec in 1664. Edward Cornwallis, the governor of the colony of Nova Scotia and founder of Halifax, later preferred German immigrants because of their skills at farming, and because they were Protestant, like the other settlers in the area. In an organized effort to bring German newcomers to Nova Scotia, King George II of England offered free land and enough supplies for one year to farmers from Germany who were willing to become British subjects and immigrate to British North America. One reason he offered free land was because he was also German. By 1753 approximately 1500 Germans set up a colony at Lunenburg, Nova Scotia. During the American Revolution many of the soldiers in the British army were German mercenaries. At the end of the war some of these soldiers who were stationed in British North America chose to remain as permanent colonists. After the American Revolution a large number of the Loyalists who came to British North America were Germans. They were primarily Amish from Pennsylvania and New York, and they settled mainly in the area between Lake Ontario and Lake Huron. Others settled along the St. Lawrence River in eastern Upper Canada. It has been estimated that one-third of the Loyalists who came to Upper Canada spoke German. By 1867 there were approximately 200,000 German-speaking people in Canada. Between 1874 and 1876 roughly 6000 Germans came to the Red River area from Russia, the United States, and Europe. Most were Mennonites. They were joined by groups of Germans from Ontario. Soon a large settlement was established around Berlin, Ontario (later renamed Kitchener). Ukrainians The first Ukrainian immigration to the western world began in 1812. Information as to who actually came first is not clear, but they were probably mercenary soldiers who came to fight in the War of 1812 and then stayed on as settlers. Andrew Yankovsky and Peter Komdrovsky were among the Selkirk Settlers who settled in the Red River area in 1812. In 1874 Mennonites from the central Ukraine settled in Manitoba. In the 1880s groups of Ukrainians left the United States and came to Winnipeg. Blacks By 1850 there were close to 40,000 blacks in Upper Canada. Roughly 1000 had been taken to Quebec as slaves under French rule. They mostly worked as household servants. While slavery was still legal in Britain's colonies, any slave joining the British army was granted his freedom. After the American Revolution approximately 3500 black Loyalists, all having achieved their freedom, moved to the British colony of Nova Scotia (and later to the newly formed colony of New Brunswick). Most black Loyalists expected that they also would receive free land, but many did not receive that land from the British government, nor were they allowed to vote or have access to the law courts. Some blacks (approximately 2000) came as slaves to British North America. Some non-black Loyalists brought their slaves with them. During the War of 1812 blacks from the United States moved to British North America, mainly to Nova Scotia, where they received land from the British as a reward for joining the British side. In 1793 Upper Canada abolished slavery, but it remained legal in parts of British North America until 1834, when a new law stopped slavery in the British Empire. Thus, Canada became a place of safety for slaves escaping from the United States. Close to 30,000 came to Canada. The route to freedom in Upper Canada was called the Underground Railway. Years later when black people were given their freedom in the United States, many returned to their former homeland. Chinese The first Chinese person to come to British North America came because of the Pacific fur trade. The Chinese did not establish any permanent place of residence until the gold rush in British Columbia in the 1850s. While some became involved in the search for gold, most provided services such as restaurants, laundries, and hotels to the miners. Many returned home to China after the gold rush. Close to 1500 stayed on to become involved in other mining operations, or to work as servants or in the new fishing industry developing on the West Coast. Page 204 Review Summarizing the Chapter The political deadlock in the Province of Canada was finally broken when the Grits, the Tories, and the Bleus united under their leaders, George Brown, John A. Macdonald, and George-Etienne Cartier. This union was called the Great Coalition. Its goal was to create a union between Canada and the other British North American colonies. There were several reasons for this decision. One was the need to build railways to increase trade among the colonies as the Reciprocity Treaty with the United States was ending. The fear of American expansion was another. Armed border raids by the Irish-American Fenians were also a concern. It was thought that if the colonies joined together, then they would be able to defend themselves better. The British colonial governors were instructed by the British government to encourage the union. The British government did not want to spend a great deal of money to defend the colonies. In September of 1864 the Atlantic colonies scheduled a conference at Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island to discuss a union among themselves. Representatives from the Province of Canada attended and persuaded the Maritime delegates to discuss a larger union among all of the British North American colonies at Quebec in October. The result of the Quebec Conference was a list called the Seventy-Two Resolutions. They called for a federal system with a strong central government and provinces with limited powers. The federal Parliament would consist of a House of Commons with members elected according to the principle of representation by population, and a Senate whose members would be appointed by region. The task of the delegates at the Quebec Conference was to go home and convince people that Confederation was a good idea. In the Province of Canada, the Legislative Assembly voted 91 to 33 in favour. The task was more difficult in the Atlantic colonies. In New Brunswick, Premier Tilley's pro-Confederation government lost an election on the issue in 1865. However, he was re-elected the next year and the people of New Brunswick decided to join Confederation. That year, 1866, was also the year when Premier Tupper of Nova Scotia was able to win the support of the assembly for Confederation. In Prince Edward Island there was widespread opposition. In Newfoundland most people were simply indifferent to the issue. They saw no particular advantage to joining with the united Province of Canada. Delegates met again at the London Conference in late 1866 and early 1867, to work out the final details. On May 22, 1867, Queen Victoria proclaimed that the Dominion of Canada would become a nation on July 1, 1867. John A. Macdonald was to be the first prime minister. Checking Predictions 1. At the beginning of this chapter you made some predictions based on the Overview and what you already knew. Now use what you found out by reading the chapter to fill in the third column of the chart that you began earlier. 2. Refer to the "Questions to Talk About" section on page 177. Discuss the questions based on what you have learned about Confederation in Canada. Working with Information 1. Here are some main ideas from this chapter: representation by population political deadlock the Great Coalition Confederation (federal union) intercolonial railways decision-making co-operation lobby compromise nationhood Choose one main idea and use one of the following approaches to making a permanent individual record: mind map, web, paragraph, or an outline. 2. Put yourself in the place of one of the people mentioned in this chapter. Write a journal entry or entries describing what the above ideas are and your opinion of them. 3. Refer to page 7 for the definition of nation. Based on this definition and what you learned in Chapter 9, is Canada a nation? Give reasons for your answer. You may wish to debate this question. 4. Canada's government consists of three branches. What are they? Describe each branch. 5. Refer to the last footnote on page 196. Provide examples of the new powers the provinces gained. Page 205 Building Thinking Skills Conceptualizing Refer to the visual definitions of nation on page 7, Confederation on page 182, and the definitions you developed at the beginning of this chapter. Make a poster of your triad's concept of nationhood based on what you have learned. You may wish to review the steps in concept formation as found on page 39. Evaluating Arguments On page 193 reread the quote from Joseph Howe's "Botheration Letters," which he wrote in 1865. You will see that Howe is arguing against Nova Scotia joining Confederation. Here is a quote by Premier Charles Tupper from a speech made the same year. Premier Tupper tells why Nova Scotia should join Confederation. The fact is, if we are known, at all across the Atlantic, notwithstanding, the immense resources of these Maritime Provinces, it is because we happen to be contiguous to Canada. Everything connected with our interests tells us of the insignificance of our position. Briefly summarize Joseph Howe's argument against Confederation. Briefly summarize Premier Tupper's argument for Confederation. Which argument do you consider to be stronger? Tell why. With which side do you agree? Tell why. Communicating Ideas Reading 1. The strong anti-Confederation movement in Nova Scotia was an example of federal/provincial conflict. Check newspapers and other media for a period of two weeks. List examples of federal/provincial conflict that you find. You could put the information in a chart. Writing 1. Check the newspapers and other media daily for a period of two weeks. (a) Make a list of individuals and groups who are lobbying provincial and federal governments today, and tell what their special interests are. (b) Make a list of requests made in petitions to provincial or federal governments. Speaking 1. Discuss or debate the following: To become a nation an area must have the legal right to control its own affairs. Find proof to show that Canada, at the time of Confederation, did not have this right. Was Canada really a super colony and not a nation? 2. What rights do minorities have guaranteed in the Constitution Act, 1867? Check the newspaper and other media to find examples of how provincial and federal governments are protecting the rights of minorities. Tell a classmate about what you found. Creating 1. Use the information in Chapter 9 to prepare a game to illustrate the reasons for Confederation, the events leading up to Confederation, and the government of Canada as determined by the British North America Act, 1867. Canada Revisited Picture: Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau watches as Queen Elizabeth II signs the Constitution Proclamation on April 17, 1982.


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    Anonymous John A. MAcdonald 0 Apr 2 2008, 6:09 PM EDT by Anonymous
     
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    John A. Macdonald

    John A. Macdonald was Canada's first prime minister, and was knighted for his efforts in bringing about Confederation

    John Alexander Macdonald was born at Glasgow, Scotland, the son of Hugh Macdonald and Helen Shaw. When he was five years old, the family moved to Kingston, Upper Canada. At the age of 15, he began legal studies in Kingston, and by the age of 19 opened his own law office there. He became known as a quick-witted and ingenious trial lawyer. Later, he was named solicitor for both of Kingston's banks. He was married twice


    Macdonald was interested in public life from an early age, holding offices with a variety of boards and societies before becoming an alderman for Kingston in 1843. In 1844 he entered provincial politics as a Conservative member for Kingston, acting as receiver-general. After the defeat of the government early in 1848, Macdonald spent the time in opposition working for the interests of his party.

    The instability of the government during this period, and the growing opposition to the union of the two Canadas, indicated that changes needed to be made in the way the region was governed. In 1864, Macdonald accepted George Brown's proposal of a "Great Coalition" government to bring about constitutional change. That summer was spent in preparing the proposals presented at the Charlottetown Conference. At the Québec Conference, Macdonald claimed responsibility for the Québec Resolutions. After Brown's resignation in 1865, he was generally regarded as the chief architect of Confederation. He was a leading delegate at all three Confederation conferences, and was knighted for his work towards union
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    Anonymous 41-45 0 Apr 2 2008, 6:05 PM EDT by Anonymous
     
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    Sir John Alexander Macdonald born January 11, 1815 died June 6, 1891. He was the first Prime Minister of Canada, and took a major part in Candian Confederation.

    Joseph Howe, born December 13, 1804 died June 1, 1873. He was the editor of a newspaper called Novascotian. He had a major role in winning Resposible Government for Nova Scotia in 1848.



    Sir Alexander Tilloch Galt was born September 6, 1817 and came to Canada in 1835. He died in September 19, 1893 He was canada's first finance minister.Also he became president of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway.
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    Anonymous George-Etienne Carter 0 Apr 2 2008, 6:05 PM EDT by Anonymous
     
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    George-Etienne Cartier
    George-Étienne Cartier was one of the most influential politicians of his generation. Together with John A. Macdonald, he was co-premier of the Province of Canada

    He was among the most ardent supporters of Confederation

    In 1834, he worked to elect Louis-Joseph Papineau and Robert Nelson. He was also a member of the Fils de la Liberté (Sons of Liberty) and, during the 1837 Rebellion, fought in the battle of Saint-Denis (November 22). After a brief exile in the United States, he returned to Lower Canada, where he practiced law from 1839 to 1848. The Sulpicians and the Grand Trunk Railway were among his clients

    it was George-Étienne Cartier who, in 1852, presented a bill to the Union parliament to create the Grand Trunk Railway Company of Canada

    George-Étienne Cartier entered politics in 1848, when he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the Union of Canada as the representative for the riding of Verchères. In 1854 he joined the Cabinet, becoming provincial secretary for Canada East


    He tried to convince Queen Victoria of the merits of a British North American union.
    George-Étienne Cartier joined the Great Coalition of 1864 to mitigate this situation and to set in motion the process leading to Confederation.

    On July 1, 1867, George-Étienne Cartier entered John A. Macdonald's first government as minister of militia and defence. As the law of the time allowed, he also ran in the provincial election and was elected into the government of Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau


    After his defeat in Montréal East in 1872, George-Étienne Cartier travelled to London hoping to find a cure for the chronic kidney condition which had plagued him for many years. His health did not improve and he died in London at the age of 58



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